The statistic was stark and it circulated widely in Indian and international media: a rape was reported in India every 22 minutes, according to National Crime Records Bureau data. The figure, troubling enough in itself, was accompanied by the understanding, widely held among criminologists and women's rights advocates, that reported cases represented only a fraction of actual incidents — that the real rate of sexual violence was substantially higher, with most cases going unreported due to social stigma, family pressure, distrust of police, and the well-documented secondary victimization that often accompanied the reporting process.

The conversation intensified through 2012 and reached a breaking point in December of that year when the gang rape and murder of a young woman on a Delhi bus provoked protests of a scale and persistence not seen in India in years. The victim, who came to be known by various pseudonyms to protect her identity, became a focal point for accumulated rage at a system that consistently failed to protect women and that routinely blamed victims for violence perpetrated against them.

The protests were notable for several reasons. They included large numbers of young men and women together, which contradicted narratives that presented gender violence as a matter for women to address among themselves. They were sustained over multiple days and in multiple cities. And they generated genuine policy responses: the Justice Verma Committee produced a rapid and serious review of laws governing sexual violence, leading to legislative changes that expanded definitions of rape, increased penalties, and addressed aspects of the legal framework that had long been identified as inadequate.

The fundamental problem — a culture of impunity for sexual violence, inadequate policing, slow and victim-hostile judicial processes, and social norms that continued to assign responsibility to victims — was not resolved by legislation alone.